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arXiv · 2601.06961

The Impact of Anisotropic Covariance Structure on the Training Dynamics and Generalization Error of Linear Networks

Taishi Watanabe·Ryo Karakida·Jun-nosuke Teramae
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Abstract

The success of deep neural networks largely depends on the statistical structure of the training data. While learning dynamics and generalization on isotropic data are well-established, the impact of pronounced anisotropy on these crucial aspects is not yet fully understood. We examine the impact of data anisotropy, represented by a spiked covariance structure, a canonical yet tractable model, on the learning dynamics and generalization error of a two-layer linear network in a linear regression setting. Our analysis reveals that the learning dynamics proceed in two distinct phases, governed initially by the input-output correlation and subsequently by other principal directions of the data structure. Furthermore, we derive an analytical expression for the generalization error, quantifying how the alignment of the spike structure of the data with the learning task improves performance. Our findings offer deep theoretical insights into how data anisotropy shapes the learning trajectory and final performance, providing a foundation for understanding complex interactions in more advanced network architectures.

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Taishi Watanabe, Ryo Karakida, Jun-nosuke Teramae. 2026-01-11. The Impact of Anisotropic Covariance Structure on the Training Dynamics and Generalization Error of Linear Networks. https://arxiv.org/abs/2601.06961

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