Forward and Inverse Mantle Convection with Neural Operators

Abstract

Thermal state reconstruction--reversing convection to recover the thermal structure of the mantle at an earlier geologic time--is an important tool to understand the evolution of mantle convection and its relation to seismic tomographic images and observations at the surface. Thermal state reconstructions are computationally expensive. Here we transformed the basic computational element, numerical solvers, into neural operators, a class of machine learning models for learning mappings between function spaces. Focusing on a specific architecture, Fourier Neural Operators, we demonstrate that they can represent not only a surrogate model like the Stokes system of equations using a purely physics informed approach, but also discover operators without explicit mathematical formulations or even ill-posedness from data, including the direct mapping between two convecting thermal states separated by a long time interval much larger than the Courant-Friedrichs-Lewy condition and its reversal. These neural operators significantly accelerate forward and inverse convection modelling by transforming forward physical processes into surrogate models with lower complexity while utilizing auto-differentiation to calculate gradients. With this framework, we demonstrate the strengths and weaknesses of four methods for thermal state reconstructions: reverse buoyancy, reverse convection operator, an inversion with only the terminal thermal state, and a joint inversion with the terminal thermal state and surface velocity evolution. The reverse convection operator is shown to perform poorly in the presence of observational noise, but the joint inversion overcomes this limitation. The joint technique could probably become a solution to large-scale thermal state inversion problems using seismic tomography and plate tectonic reconstructions.