Unified Deflection Estimation and Error Analysis for Background-Oriented Schlieren

Abstract

Background-Oriented Schlieren (BOS) has become a versatile quantitative diagnostic for density-varying flows, in which estimating the light-ray deflection from the measured displacement is the essential step linking the recorded images to the underlying refractive-index field. Two-dimensional BOS traditionally treats this through the intuitive deflection angle, whereas three-dimensional tomographic BOS relies on the rigorous deflection vector derived from the ray equation. These descriptions have evolved largely independently, and the assumptions bridging them, together with the systematic errors they introduce, have not been examined in a unified manner. Based on geometric optics, this study establishes a unified deflection estimation framework that reconciles the mainstream two- and three-dimensional methods into a single mathematical structure and exposes the hierarchy of approximations underlying each. By deconstructing four key assumptions, namely the thin phase object, the uniform boundary refractive index, the paraxial approximation, and the perpendicularity between the deflection vector and the optical axis, we derive rigorous unified deflection expressions in both two- and three-dimensional space and categorize the mainstream methods accordingly. Using phase objects constructed from one-dimensional chirp signals and two-dimensional turbulent fields from Direct Numerical Simulation, combined with high-fidelity nonlinear ray tracing as the ground truth, we quantitatively characterize and analytically interpret the deflection estimation error of each method under both uniform and non-uniform refractive-index boundary conditions. This work provides a theoretical toolkit for assessing and enhancing the accuracy of quantitative BOS diagnostics.