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arXiv · 2610.40056

Reinforcement Learning Under Runtime Confounding: Policy Learning and Off-Policy Evaluation

Raphael Kim·Michele Santacatterina·Ramin Zabih·Keith Barnatchez
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Abstract

Reinforcement learning (RL) is increasingly used to train robust, adaptable systems across healthcare, e-commerce, and robotics. In these settings, legal, ethical, or logistical concerns may preclude certain key variables that drive decisions from being collected during deployment time. This gives rise to a setting known as runtime confounding: the logged data hold full observability, but deployment time lacks knowledge of certain variables, known as runtime confounders. Unlike single timepoint and non-adaptive settings, runtime confounding under reinforcement learning has the potential to propagate over time, as earlier decisions affect future states, observations, and action assignments, leading to biased learning. We address these problems with three contributions: we (1) develop policy learning algorithms under runtime-confounding, (2) develop semi-parametric efficient off-policy estimation procedures, and (3) provide diagnostics for understanding the price of runtime confounding.

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Raphael Kim, Michele Santacatterina, Ramin Zabih, Keith Barnatchez. 2026-10-29. Reinforcement Learning Under Runtime Confounding: Policy Learning and Off-Policy Evaluation. https://arxiv.org/abs/2610.40056

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