arXiv subjects

Jing Liang

Publications and source records attributed to Jing Liang.

At least 19 recordsLinked to original sources

arXiv2026

CESBench: Benchmarking Large Language Models on Cryptographic Engineering Security for IoT Devices

For Internet of Things (IoT) devices, a secure algorithm alone is not enough: an attacker with physical access can attack the implementation directly, and its flaws are hard to fix once deployed. Large language models (LLMs) are now used to build and analyze such implementations. LLM benchmarks exist for cryptography and general cybersecurity, but none covers cryptographic engineering. In this paper, we present CESBench, 380 expert-written items across six sub-domains of cryptographic engineering security for IoT devices: side-channel, fault injection, implementation, countermeasures, evaluation, and integration. Four task types target different competences: 209 multiple-choice items test recall, 67 judgment items require a security verdict and its justification, 63 scenario items require an engineering diagnosis, and 41 code tasks are graded by 572 test cases. To validate the benchmark, 11 open-weight and proprietary LLMs answer every item. Multiple-choice and code responses are scored automatically, and judgment and scenario responses by an LLM judge, whose scores are checked against a second judge from another model family and human re-scoring. Composite scores range from 54.4% to 83.6%. The top score on each task type is 98.6% for multiple choice, 95.1% for code, and 88.4% for scenario diagnosis, but only 58.8% for judgment. Across models, 88.5% of verdicts are correct, yet their justifications earn only 53.4% of the rubric marks. Multiple choice is near its ceiling for the strongest models and most code tasks are solved, whereas justifying a security verdict remains the weakest competence. The benchmark, prompts, and per-item results are public.

cs.CR↗

arXiv2026

Dual-Process Atomic Skill Learning: Decoupling Semantic Reasoning and Real-Time Control

Language-conditioned Imitation Learning (IL) is essential for enabling robots to perform complex tasks following natural language instructions. However, generalizing to multi-step compositional tasks remains a significant challenge. While hierarchical approaches attempt to address this by decomposing tasks into atomic skills, existing methods often suffer from training instability and codebook collapse due to the tight coupling between high-level skill reasoning and low-level action generation in joint training paradigms. Inspired by the Dual-Process Theory of cognition, we propose Dual-Process Atomic Skill Learning (DASL), a novel asynchronous hierarchical imitation learning framework that decouples slow semantic reasoning from fast, real-time motion control. DASL comprises a Slow-Frequency Policy that predicts interpretable, discrete skills via Vector Quantization, and a High-Frequency Policy that leverages a latent diffusion model and a Decision Transformer to generate precise actions conditioned on these latent skills. By asynchronously coordinating these modules and utilizing diffusion to structure the latent space, our framework mitigates the skill codebook interference problem common in joint training paradigms. Evaluations across simulation benchmarks and experiment demonstrate that DASL significantly outperforms state-of-the-art baselines, excelling in skill acquisition and compositional generalization to unseen instructions. GitHub page: https://github.com/Hatakekaka/DASL

cs.RO↗

arXiv2026

Nonparametric Contextual Pricing and Inventory Learning under Censored Demand

In online retailing, when a product sells out, a retailer often sees only the units sold, not how many customers would have bought it had inventory been available. However, the inventory level determines how much demand is revealed, and this information can influence subsequent decisions and future profits. We study an online selling problem in which, in each round, the seller observes a market context and then makes pricing and stocking decisions based on censored sales data from previous rounds. The challenge is to learn a context-dependent pricing and stocking policy without assuming a particular formula for demand or observing realized profit. To overcome this difficulty, we propose a Mean-Calibrated Kernel UCB (MCK-UCB) algorithm that turns each incomplete sales record into a reliable guide for both inventory and price decisions, using data from past rounds with similar market conditions. This design allows us to learn while serving customers, without a separate exploration phase or the need to recover all demand hidden by stockouts. We prove the minimax optimality of the proposed algorithm, with strictly faster rates when expected profit varies more smoothly with price. Comprehensive numerical experiments have been conducted to confirm the effectiveness of the proposed algorithm.

cs.LG↗

arXiv2026

VISA: VLM-Guided Instance Semantic Auditing for 3D Occupancy World Models

Semantic 3D occupancy provides a voxelized world state for autonomous driving and robot decision making, but object and rare-class errors can affect free-space interpretation, collision checking, and temporal state propagation. We show that a common VLM strategy, aligning 3D voxel or object features with crop-caption embeddings, improves text-space similarity without reliably improving closed-set occupancy mIoU. Motivated by this mismatch, we propose VISA, a training-time semantic auditing approach for existing occupancy world models. VISA queries an offline VLM on a representative crop of each physical object instance, obtains a structured audit with class hypotheses, plausible confusions, reliability, attributes, and evidence, and propagates it along the object track. The audit is grounded to matched 3D object voxels and distilled into semantic logits through reliability-weighted taxonomy, attribute-factor, and scene-level audit graph losses, while inference remains unchanged and requires no VLM. On nuScenes, averaged across three runs, VISA improves OccWorld from 19.06 to 20.05 mIoU and GaussianWorld from 21.36 to 21.91 mIoU; on GaussianWorld, object mIoU improves from 18.18 to 19.16 and rare-class mIoU from 15.60 to 16.79. These results suggest that VLMs are better suited to closed-set occupancy as reliability-aware semantic auditors than as generic caption-embedding targets.

cs.CV↗

arXiv2026

The Mirage of Optimizing Training Policies: Monotonic Inference Policies as the Real Objective for LLM Reinforcement Learning

Reinforcement learning (RL) has gained growing attention in large language model (LLM) post-training, yet RL training remains fragile and can suffer from instability or collapse. One vital cause is training-inference mismatch: LLM adopts separate inference and training engines for generation efficiency and training precision, which in practice exhibits inconsistent probabilities for the same trajectories on training and inference sides, even with synchronized model parameters. This naturally induces a special type of off-policyness ever existing and poisoning the training. Prior works have made various efforts in addressing the off-policyness to stabilize the training policies under the mismatch. In this paper, we point out the objective misalignment neglected by existing works that an effective update to the policy in the training engine not necessarily ensures the improvement of the inference policy, i.e., the one used in deployment. To this end, we propose a new policy optimization objective for LLM RL, named Monotonic Inference Policy Improvement (MIPI). Following this principle, we introduce Monotonic Inference Policy Update (MIPU), a two-step LLM RL framework that constructs sampler-referenced candidate updates and selectively accepts synchronized candidates using an inference-side gap proxy. Experiments conducted on two model scales under high mismatch show that MIPU improves average reasoning performance and training stability.

cs.LG↗

arXiv2026

Making Images Real Again: A Comprehensive Survey on Deep Image Composition

As a common image editing operation, image composition/compositing, which is also called object/subject insertion/addition/compositing, aims to combine the foreground from one image and another background image to produce a composite image. However, there are many issues that could make the composite images unrealistic. These issues can be summarized as the inconsistency between foreground and background, which includes appearance inconsistency, geometry inconsistency, and semantic inconsistency. The image composition task could be decomposed into multiple sub-tasks, in which each sub-task targets one or more issues. Specifically, object placement aims to find reasonable scale, location, and shape for the foreground. Image blending aims to address the unnatural boundary between foreground and background. Image harmonization aims to adjust the illumination statistics of foreground. Shadow (resp., reflection) generation aims to generate plausible shadow (resp., reflection) for the foreground. These sub-tasks can be executed sequentially or in parallel to acquire realistic composite images. To the best of our knowledge, there is no previous survey on image composition. In this paper, we conduct a comprehensive survey over the sub-tasks and combined task of image composition. For each one, we summarize the existing methods, available datasets, and common evaluation metrics. Datasets and codes for image composition are summarized at https://github.com/bcmi/Awesome-Object-Insertion. We have also contributed the first image composition toolbox: libcom https://github.com/bcmi/libcom, which assembles 10+ image-composition-related functions. The ultimate goal of this toolbox is to solve all image composition problems with simple `import libcom'. Based on libcom toolbox, we also develop an online image composition workbench https://libcom.ustcnewly.com.

cs.CV↗

arXiv2026

Reformulate LLM Reinforcement Learning for Efficient Training under Black-box Discrepancy

Reinforcement Learning (RL) has emerged as a pivotal post-training paradigm, yet it frequently suffers from unpredictable sub-optimum performance or even training collapses. Recent findings attribute these failures to a hidden train-inference discrepancy (or mismatch), stemming from the disparate underlying engines and architecture. We find that the training policy can actively self-correct such a discrepancy when provided with an appropriate learning signal. Then, we further empirically identify a discrepancy tolerance region: within this region, aggressively narrowing the discrepancy can suppress policy exploration and reduce learning efficiency, whereas outside this region, reducing excessive discrepancy improves optimization consistency and raises the achievable local performance ceiling. According to such findings, we formulate this problem as a Discrepancy-Constrained Markov Decision Process (DCMDP), where reward maximization is coupled with a constraint that aligns training-Inference behavior, achieving stable dual-objective optimization. To adaptively balance performance improvement and discrepancy control, we introduce a Lagrangian relaxation mechanism that dynamically adjusts the relative weight of the two objectives according to the current degree of discrepancy violation. This enables stable dual-objective optimization: the policy is allowed to explore freely within the tolerance region, while being guided back when the discrepancy exceeds the safe boundary. Empirically, DCMDP significantly improves the performance of 8B dense model (Qwen-3-8b) and 30B Mixture-of-Expert model (Qwen-3-30bA3b), and enables a heterogeneous training paradigm, where LLMs can be optimized in high-fidelity training setup while being explicitly aligned for low-cost, resource-constrained inference deployment.

cs.LG↗

arXiv2026

AutoSpatial: Visual-Language Reasoning for Social Robot Navigation through Efficient Spatial Reasoning Learning

We present a novel method, AutoSpatial, an efficient approach with structured spatial grounding to enhance VLMs' spatial reasoning. By combining minimal manual supervision with large-scale Visual Question-Answering (VQA) pairs auto-labeling, our approach tackles the challenge of VLMs' limited spatial understanding in social navigation tasks. By applying a hierarchical two-round VQA strategy during training, AutoSpatial achieves both global and detailed understanding of scenarios, demonstrating more accurate spatial perception, movement prediction, Chain of Thought (CoT) reasoning, final action, and explanation compared to other SOTA approaches. These five components are essential for comprehensive social navigation reasoning. Our approach was evaluated using both expert systems (GPT-4o, Gemini 2.0 Flash, and Claude 3.5 Sonnet) that provided cross-validation scores and human evaluators who assigned relative rankings to compare model performances across four key aspects. Augmented by the enhanced spatial reasoning capabilities, AutoSpatial demonstrates substantial improvements by averaged cross-validation score from expert systems in: perception & prediction (up to 10.71%), reasoning (up to 16.26%), action (up to 20.50%), and explanation (up to 18.73%) compared to baseline models trained only on manually annotated data.

cs.RO↗

arXiv2026

Paired-CSLiDAR: Height-Stratified Registration for Cross-Source Aerial-Ground LiDAR Pose Refinement

We introduce Paired-CSLiDAR (CSLiDAR), a cross-source aerial-ground LiDAR benchmark for single-scan pose refinement: refining a ground-scan pose within a 50 m-radius aerial crop. The benchmark contains 12,683 ground-aerial pairs across 6 evaluation sites and per-scan reference 6-DoF alignments for sub-meter root-mean-square error (RMSE) evaluation. Because aerial scans capture rooftops and canopy while ground scans capture facades and under-canopy, the two modalities share only a fraction of their geometry, primarily the terrain surface, causing standard registration methods and learned correspondence models to converge to metrically incorrect local minima. We propose Residual-Guided Stratified Registration (RGSR), a training-free, geometry-only refinement pipeline that exploits the shared ground plane through height-stratified ICP, reversed registration directions, and confidence-gated accept-if-better selection. RGSR achieves 86.0% S@0.75 m and 99.8% S@1.0 m on the primary benchmark of 9,012 scans, outperforming both the confidence-gated cascade at 83.7% and GeoTransformer at 76.3%. We validate RMSE-based pose selection with independent survey control and trajectory consistency, and show that added Fourier-Mellin BEV proposals can reduce RMSE while increasing actual pose error under extreme partial overlap. The dataset and code are being prepared for public release.

cs.RO↗

arXiv2026

Splatblox: Traversability-Aware Gaussian Splatting for Outdoor Robot Navigation

We present Splatblox, a real-time system for autonomous navigation in outdoor environments with dense vegetation, irregular obstacles, and complex terrain. Our method fuses segmented RGB images and LiDAR point clouds using Gaussian Splatting to construct a traversability-aware Euclidean Signed Distance Field (ESDF) that jointly encodes geometry and semantics. Updated online, this field enables semantic reasoning to distinguish traversable vegetation (e.g., tall grass) from rigid obstacles (e.g., trees), while LiDAR ensures 360-degree geometric coverage for extended planning horizons. We validate Splatblox on a quadruped robot and demonstrate transfer to a wheeled platform. In field trials across vegetation-rich scenarios, it outperforms state-of-the-art methods with over 50% higher success rate, 40% fewer freezing incidents, 5% shorter paths, and up to 13% faster time to goal, while supporting long-range missions up to 100 meters. Experiment videos and more details can be found on our project page: https://splatblox.github.io

cs.RO↗

arXiv2026

GaussianSSC: Triplane-Guided Directional Gaussian Fields for 3D Semantic Completion

We present \emph{GaussianSSC}, a two-stage, grid-native and triplane-guided approach to semantic scene completion (SSC) that injects the benefits of Gaussians without replacing the voxel grid or maintaining a separate Gaussian set. We introduce \emph{Gaussian Anchoring}, a sub-pixel, Gaussian-weighted image aggregation over fused FPN features that tightens voxel--image alignment and improves monocular occupancy estimation. We further convert point-like voxel features into a learned per-voxel Gaussian field and refine triplane features via a triplane-aligned \emph{Gaussian--Triplane Refinement} module that combines \emph{local gathering} (target-centric) and \emph{global aggregation} (source-centric). This directional, anisotropic support captures surface tangency, scale, and occlusion-aware asymmetry while preserving the efficiency of triplane representations. On SemanticKITTI~\cite{behley2019semantickitti}, GaussianSSC improves Stage~1 occupancy by +1.0\% Recall, +2.0\% Precision, and +1.8\% IoU over state-of-the-art baselines, and improves Stage~2 semantic prediction by +1.8\% IoU and +0.8\% mIoU.

cs.RO↗

arXiv2026

MVGT: A Multi-view Graph Transformer Based on Spatial Relations for EEG Emotion Recognition

Electroencephalography (EEG), a technique that records electrical activity from the scalp using electrodes, plays a vital role in affective computing. However, fully utilizing the multi-domain characteristics of EEG signals remains a significant challenge. Traditional single-perspective analyses often fail to capture the complex interplay of temporal, frequency, and spatial dimensions in EEG data. To address this, we introduce a multi-view graph transformer (MVGT) based on spatial relations that integrates information across three domains: temporal dynamics from continuous series, frequency features extracted from frequency bands, and inter-channel relationships captured through several spatial encodings. This comprehensive approach allows model to capture the nuanced properties inherent in EEG signals, enhancing its flexibility and representational power. Evaluation on publicly available datasets demonstrates that MVGT surpasses state-of-the-art methods in performance. The results highlight its ability to extract multi-domain information and effectively model inter-channel relationships, showcasing its potential for EEG-based emotion recognition tasks.

cs.NE↗

arXiv2026

Let It Flow: Agentic Crafting on Rock and Roll, Building the ROME Model within an Open Agentic Learning Ecosystem

Agentic crafting requires LLMs to operate in real-world environments over multiple turns by taking actions, observing outcomes, and iteratively refining artifacts. Despite its importance, the open-source community lacks a principled, end-to-end ecosystem to streamline agent development. We introduce the Agentic Learning Ecosystem (ALE), a foundational infrastructure that optimizes the production pipeline for agentic model. ALE consists of three components: ROLL, a post-training framework for weight optimization; ROCK, a sandbox environment manager for trajectory generation; and iFlow CLI, an agent framework for efficient context engineering. We release ROME, an open-source agent grounded by ALE and trained on over one million trajectories. Our approach includes data composition protocols for synthesizing complex behaviors and a novel policy optimization algorithm, Interaction-Perceptive Agentic Policy Optimization (IPA), which assigns credit over semantic interaction chunks rather than individual tokens to improve long-horizon training stability. Empirically, we evaluate ROME within a structured setting and introduce Terminal Bench Pro, a benchmark with improved scale and contamination control. ROME demonstrates strong performance across benchmarks like SWE-bench Verified and Terminal Bench, proving the effectiveness of ALE.

cs.AI↗

arXiv2026

ViLAM: Distilling Vision-Language Reasoning into Attention Maps for Social Robot Navigation

We introduce ViLAM, a novel method for distilling vision-language reasoning from large Vision-Language Models (VLMs) into spatial attention maps for socially compliant robot navigation. Unlike traditional methods that rely on expert demonstrations or human-annotated datasets, ViLAM performs knowledge distillation and fine-tuning at the intermediate layer representation (attention) level by aligning attention maps from a pretrained vision-action model with socially guided attention maps derived from a large VLM. These distilled attention maps highlight key navigational regions in a scene and serve as socially informed spatial cost maps for motion planning. To achieve this, we introduce a novel attention-level distillation loss that fuses knowledge from both sources, generating augmented attention maps with enhanced social awareness. These refined attention maps are then used as a traversability costmap within a socially aware local planner for navigation. We validate our approach through real-world experiments on a Husky wheeled robot, and demonstrate 14.2% - 50% improvements in success rate over existing methods.

cs.RO↗

arXiv2026

LLM Agents for Education: Advances and Applications

Large Language Model (LLM) agents are transforming education by automating complex pedagogical tasks and enhancing both teaching and learning processes. In this survey, we present a systematic review of recent advances in applying LLM agents to address key challenges in educational settings, such as feedback comment generation, curriculum design, etc. We analyze the technologies enabling these agents, including representative datasets, benchmarks, and algorithmic frameworks. Additionally, we highlight key challenges in deploying LLM agents in educational settings, including ethical issues, hallucination and overreliance, and integration with existing educational ecosystems. Beyond the core technical focus, we include in Appendix A a comprehensive overview of domain-specific educational agents, covering areas such as science learning, language learning, and professional development.

cs.CY↗

arXiv2025

Clustering-based Transfer Learning for Dynamic Multimodal MultiObjective Evolutionary Algorithm

Dynamic multimodal multiobjective optimization presents the dual challenge of simultaneously tracking multiple equivalent pareto optimal sets and maintaining population diversity in time-varying environments. However, existing dynamic multiobjective evolutionary algorithms often neglect solution modality, whereas static multimodal multiobjective evolutionary algorithms lack adaptability to dynamic changes. To address above challenge, this paper makes two primary contributions. First, we introduce a new benchmark suite of dynamic multimodal multiobjective test functions constructed by fusing the properties of both dynamic and multimodal optimization to establish a rigorous evaluation platform. Second, we propose a novel algorithm centered on a Clustering-based Autoencoder prediction dynamic response mechanism, which utilizes an autoencoder model to process matched clusters to generate a highly diverse initial population. Furthermore, to balance the algorithm's convergence and diversity, we integrate an adaptive niching strategy into the static optimizer. Empirical analysis on 12 instances of dynamic multimodal multiobjective test functions reveals that, compared with several state-of-the-art dynamic multiobjective evolutionary algorithms and multimodal multiobjective evolutionary algorithms, our algorithm not only preserves population diversity more effectively in the decision space but also achieves superior convergence in the objective space.

cs.AI↗

arXiv2025

PhysGS: Bayesian-Inferred Gaussian Splatting for Physical Property Estimation

Understanding physical properties such as friction, stiffness, hardness, and material composition is essential for enabling robots to interact safely and effectively with their surroundings. However, existing 3D reconstruction methods focus on geometry and appearance and cannot infer these underlying physical properties. We present PhysGS, a Bayesian-inferred extension of 3D Gaussian Splatting that estimates dense, per-point physical properties from visual cues and vision--language priors. We formulate property estimation as Bayesian inference over Gaussian splats, where material and property beliefs are iteratively refined as new observations arrive. PhysGS also models aleatoric and epistemic uncertainties, enabling uncertainty-aware object and scene interpretation. Across object-scale (ABO-500), indoor, and outdoor real-world datasets, PhysGS improves accuracy of the mass estimation by up to 22.8%, reduces Shore hardness error by up to 61.2%, and lowers kinetic friction error by up to 18.1% compared to deterministic baselines. Our results demonstrate that PhysGS unifies 3D reconstruction, uncertainty modeling, and physical reasoning in a single, spatially continuous framework for dense physical property estimation. Additional results are available at https://samchopra2003.github.io/physgs.

cs.CV↗

arXiv2025

A segment anchoring-based balancing algorithm for agricultural multi-robot task allocation with energy constraints

Multi-robot systems have emerged as a key technology for addressing the efficiency and cost challenges in labor-intensive industries. In the representative scenario of smart farming, planning efficient harvesting schedules for a fleet of electric robots presents a highly challenging frontier problem. The complexity arises not only from the need to find Pareto-optimal solutions for the conflicting objectives of makespan and transportation cost, but also from the necessity to simultaneously manage payload constraints and finite battery capacity. When robot loads are dynamically updated during planned multi-trip operations, a mandatory recharge triggered by energy constraints introduces an unscheduled load reset. This interaction creates a complex cascading effect that disrupts the entire schedule and renders traditional optimization methods ineffective. To address this challenge, this paper proposes the segment anchoring-based balancing algorithm (SABA). The core of SABA lies in the organic combination of two synergistic mechanisms: the sequential anchoring and balancing mechanism, which leverages charging decisions as `anchors' to systematically reconstruct disrupted routes, while the proportional splitting-based rebalancing mechanism is responsible for the fine-grained balancing and tuning of the final solutions' makespans. Extensive comparative experiments, conducted on a real-world case study and a suite of benchmark instances, demonstrate that SABA comprehensively outperforms 6 state-of-the-art algorithms in terms of both solution convergence and diversity. This research provides a novel theoretical perspective and an effective solution for the multi-robot task allocation problem under energy constraints.

cs.MA↗