Three-dimensional dopant distribution from a single, out-of-focus spectroscopic image
Increasing miniaturization of nanoscale devices makes determining the three-dimensional distribution of dopants increasingly important. In out-of-focus spectroscopic scanning transmission electron microscopy images, we show that dopant atoms appear as disks with radii relating to dopant depth, allowing the three-dimensional distribution of dopants to be determined from simple geometric analysis of a single out-of-focus image. Through numerical experiments on Si-doped graphene we validate statistical detection and Bayesian inference methods to quantify confidence and uncertainties while making the analysis more robust at lower dose. We present proof-of-concept experimental data from an Fe-doped spinel, retrieving dopant depth to within around 2 nanometres.