arXiv subjects

Wenhao Wang

Publications and source records attributed to Wenhao Wang.

At least 19 recordsLinked to original sources

arXiv2026

I-HITL: Inalienable Human-in-the-Loop

Human oversight is a pillar of AI safety. It is often exercised by a human in the loop (HITL) who approves critical actions taken by an AI agent. AI agents' increasing ability to bypass guardrails, though, raises the question of how to enforce HITL robustly. We introduce the concept of inalienable human-in-the-loop (I-HITL). An I-HITL protocol ensures that an agent can initiate an action only with explicit human approval, even when the human interacts with a system (e.g., a local agentic harness) compromised by the agent. A strong I-HITL protocol additionally ensures such approval even when an adversarial human attempts to delegate approvals to an agent. To motivate I-HITL, we report on experiments with a popular agentic wallet platform in which raising an agent's spending cap requires HITL approval via emailed one-time passcodes (OTPs). Given access to the user's email and a task blocked by the cap, we find that ten different frontier models will often autonomously raise the cap, harvesting OTPs to bypass a HITL guardrail and surfacing other vulnerabilities. We formally define I-HITL using the concept of communication topologies and prove necessary and sufficient conditions for its realization. We show that an I-HITL protocol requires a trusted entity - a trusted computing device (or equivalent) - and characterize which such devices can and cannot realize an I-HITL protocol. We present a prototype I-HITL system called Countersign that can plug into and strengthen existing HITL systems using off-the-shelf consumer mobile devices.

cs.CR↗

arXiv2026

ASNER: Software Architecture Recovery with Adaptive Semantic Neighborhoods and Evidence-Grounded Refinement

Automated software architecture recovery provides architectural context for software engineering and repository-level LLM agents. Existing methods combine structural and semantic signals, but functional relatedness does not necessarily imply shared architectural responsibility. Fixed thresholds or Top-K neighborhoods also ignore repository scale and local similarity distributions, introducing errors that propagate through clustering. Unconstrained LLM refinement may further alter correct assignments without sufficient evidence. We propose ASNER (Adaptive Semantic Neighborhoods and Evidence-Grounded Refinement for Software Architecture Recovery), based on responsibility-aware, project-adaptive relation modeling and evidence-grounded boundary verification. ASNER derives structured file responsibilities with an LLM, constructs semantic neighborhoods that adapt to repository scale and local similarity distributions, and augments a static dependency graph with selected semantic relations and weak directory cues. Community detection recovers the component backbone. A Responsibility-Ownership-Aware (ROA) Agent then examines uncertain boundary files using project-level responsibilities and traceable code evidence, changing assignments only when supported. Experiments on 12 open-source projects spanning C, C++, Java, and Python show that ASNER achieves the best macro-average on all five metrics on the common benchmark, improving ARI and c2c@66 over GAER-GAT by 19.5% and 32.9%, respectively. A downstream evaluation shows that ASNER-guided LocAgent improves file-, module-, and function-level code localization, demonstrating the value of its architectural context for repository-level software engineering tasks.

cs.SE↗

arXiv2026

Markets of Minds: A 51-Billion-State Economy of Intelligence

When intelligence is shared, reasoning becomes a constrained allocation problem. In a population of agents with limited access to expert models, an intervention can benefit its recipient yet still be a poor use of shared capacity if another feasible intervention has greater expected value. Assistance must therefore be evaluated through both its marginal benefit and the opportunity cost induced by budgets, access, scarcity, and service capacity. To this end, we introduce Markets of Minds, a framework for allocating expert reasoning across agents before expert outputs are observed. For each feasible agent-service pair, the framework estimates the expected gain from assistance relative to the agent's default continuation, explicitly separating repair benefit from regression risk, and jointly clears assistance contracts under shared resource constraints. We then study this problem in a dependency-aware agent economy with 51.2 billion addressable persona-market states spanning capabilities, cognitive budgets, provider access, scarcity, and network roles. These dependencies couple allocation feasibility across agents rather than the outcome of a fixed contract. Empirically, in a matched replay of 240 cases under a common 30% assistance quota, the frozen allocator reaches 85.42% task-level persona adherence versus 73.86% for equal-capacity random allocation, a gain of 11.56 percentage points. The results show that assistance value is heterogeneous and can be negative, and that scarcity changes which interventions are worth purchasing. Together, these findings motivate a population-level view of intelligence where the value of assistance depends not only on what it can achieve, but also on which alternative uses of scarce cognitive capacity it displaces.

cs.MA↗

arXiv2026

AgiBot World Colosseo: A Large-scale Manipulation Platform for Scalable and Intelligent Embodied Systems

We explore how scalable robot data can address real-world challenges for generalized robotic manipulation. Introducing AgiBot World, a large-scale platform comprising over 1 million trajectories across 217 tasks in five deployment scenarios, we achieve an order-of-magnitude increase in data scale compared to existing datasets. Accelerated by a standardized collection pipeline with human-in-the-loop verification, AgiBot World guarantees high-quality and diverse data distribution. It is extensible from grippers to dexterous hands and visuo-tactile sensors for fine-grained skill acquisition. Building on top of data, we introduce Genie Operator-1 (GO-1), a novel generalist policy that leverages latent action representations to maximize data utilization, demonstrating predictable performance scaling with increased data volume. Policies pre-trained on our dataset achieve an average performance improvement of 30% over those trained on Open X-Embodiment, both in in-domain and out-of-distribution scenarios. GO-1 exhibits exceptional capability in real-world dexterous and long-horizon tasks, achieving over 60% success rate on complex tasks and outperforming prior RDT approach by 32%. By open-sourcing the dataset, tools, and models, we aim to democratize access to large-scale, high-quality robot data, advancing the pursuit of scalable and general-purpose intelligence.

cs.RO↗

arXiv2026

Token-Budget Distillation: Transferring Full-Token Semantics to Compressed Video Vision-Language Models

Adapting video vision-language models (VLMs) is computationally expensive because video inputs produce a large number of visual tokens, making both fine-tuning and inference costly. Although visual token compression can reduce this overhead, direct adaptation on compressed inputs often causes semantic drift and noticeable performance degradation. We present Token-Budget Distillation (TBD), a parameter-efficient fine-tuning framework for adapting video VLMs under a fixed token budget. TBD freezes the pretrained backbone, updates only LoRA adapters, and integrates FlashVID-based visual token compression into the video pathway. To preserve full-token semantics under compression, TBD employs a dual-path teacher-student design, where a full-token teacher provides stable supervision and a compressed student is optimized with task loss, answer-region KL distillation, GT-anchored margin distillation, and reliability-aware KD control. This design enables the student to recover the semantic behavior of the full-token model while remaining efficient under aggressive token reduction. We evaluate TBD on three video VLM backbones, including LLaVA-Video, LLaVA-OneVision, and Qwen3-VL-8B-Instruct, across four video understanding benchmarks. TBD consistently outperforms compression-only baselines under both moderate and aggressive compression. On LLaVA-Video at retention ratio R = 10 percent, TBD preserves 97.0 percent of the Vanilla model's average accuracy; on LLaVA-OneVision at R = 10 percent, it achieves an average score of 58.4 and matches 100.0 percent relative accuracy.

cs.CV↗

arXiv2026

SoftwareGym: Scaling Computer-Use Agent Training with Diverse Synthesized Software Environments

Computer-use agents (CUAs) are rapidly improving, yet synthesizing diverse and reliable software environments at scale remains challenging. Native application environments require substantial construction and integration effort, which limits application coverage and increases the risk of application-specific overfitting. Browser-hosted environments provide limited interaction depth and workflow complexity. These limitations motivate SoftwareGym, an automated pipeline for synthesizing GUI software environments with diverse interfaces, executable functionality, and runtime-verified behavior. It generates structurally diverse designs, realizes them as runnable applications, and uses GUI evaluation with iterative repair to ensure functional reliability. Using SoftwareGym, we synthesize 182 applications across twelve categories and achieve a mean GUI task pass rate of 91.5%. We construct SoftwareGym-Bench, a 120-task evaluation suite spanning the same twelve categories, and use trajectories collected from these environments for CUA training. The resulting model improves Pass@3 from 41.39% to 56.97% on the strictly out-of-domain OSWorld benchmark and achieves 40.0% on SoftwareGym-Bench. These results demonstrate the potential of synthesized software environments as scalable and transferable supervision for CUA training.

cs.MA↗

arXiv2026

MAEM: Mitigating Recency Bias via a Replay-Free, Capacity-Controlled Dynamic Mixture of Experts for Class-Incremental Graph Learning

Graph Neural Networks (GNNs) excel on graph-structured data but suffer catastrophic forgetting when classes arrive sequentially. In class-incremental graph learning, predictions are often dominated by recently learned classes, causing severe recency bias. Dynamic expansion can isolate knowledge across sessions, but many methods assume task-incremental settings and require task identities at test time to select branches or heads---information unavailable in class-incremental learning. Learnable routers offer an alternative, yet continual fine-tuning the router on new data can bias routing toward recent components. We propose MAEM, a replay-free, capacity-controlled dynamic mixture-of-experts framework for class-incremental graph learning. MAEM builds representations with Simplified Graph Convolution (SGC) and trains a dedicated expert for each new session, then freezes it to protect prior knowledge. For routing without task IDs or a shared trainable router, each expert uses a masked autoencoder (MAE); test nodes are assigned to the expert with the lowest reconstruction error, reducing routing-level recency bias. When the expert pool reaches a fixed capacity, MAEM merges the least-used experts via Git Re-Basin alignment and further distills them into a fused expert using topology-aware pseudo data synthesized from MAE distributions (DeepInversion-style), without storing or revisiting historical graph data. On four class-incremental graph benchmarks, MAEM mitigates recency bias, outperforms strong continual graph learning baselines, and keeps model capacity bounded under strict replay-free learning.

cs.LG↗

arXiv2026

EviScene: Beyond "Is It AI?" for Agentic Image Factuality Assessment

Determining whether an image is AI-generated does not establish whether the situation it depicts is factually supported. We formulate Image Factuality Assessment: given an image and a generic verification instruction, a system returns a supported or refuted verdict with an evidence-grounded explanation. Without a supplied textual claim, the system must progressively refine factual questions during investigation and align external evidence with the specific situation depicted. We introduce EviLens, an expert-reviewed benchmark of 10,174 supported and refuted images from controlled construction and web collection, covering twelve factual error types and evaluating both verdict accuracy and evidence sufficiency. We develop EviScene, a multimodal ReAct agent that interleaves visual inspection, external retrieval, and evidence analysis, using new findings to refine its questions and revisit relevant image details. We train a compact policy with supervised fine-tuning on reviewed teacher trajectories, followed by privileged on-policy self-distillation applied to verified decisions from the policy's own investigations. On the 1,527-image test set, the trained Qwen3.5-9B agent achieves 79.05% balanced accuracy and a Strict Evidence Sufficiency Rate (SESR) of 52.26%, improving over the same-backbone base agent by 6.71 and 9.37 percentage points, respectively. Its SESR is the highest among the evaluated agents.Code, models, and data will be released at https://github.com/wangzian828/EVISCENE and https://huggingface.co/ZiAnwang/EviScene.

cs.CV↗

arXiv2026

Skill-SLM: Agent Skill-driven Small Language Models for Reliable Robot Operation

Small language models (SLMs) have been increasingly adopted for onboard robot operation because they enable intelligent decision-making. However, existing approaches are mainly distillation-oriented and rely on enumerating representative task-solution pairs. This makes dataset construction difficult and limits generalization to diverse robot tasks whose possible forms grow rapidly. This paper proposes Skill-SLM, a framework that reformulates SLM-driven robot operation as a task-decomposition and skill-composition problem. Given a natural language task instruction, Skill-SLM decomposes the task into subtasks, selects appropriate skills from the skill library, and orchestrates the selected skills into executable robot operations. First, to support the skill-driven workflow, we propose a novel robot operational skill aware context-free grammar (CFG) to extract the skills required to accomplish tasks and build the skill library accordingly. Then, we configure LLM teachers to induce and synthesize training datasets for the SLMs, enabling SLMs to decompose tasks and orchestrate skills reliably. Additionally, we employ a progressive skill orchestration strategy to improve the reliability of skill implementation and overall robot operation. Experiments on UAV operation tasks indicate that Skill-SLM substantially outperforms distillation-oriented baselines, especially on unseen tasks that require generalization of capabilities. Additional experiments on ground vehicle tasks further demonstrate that Skill-SLM can be applied to different robot platforms.

cs.RO↗

arXiv2026

Scaling Laws for Deepfake Detection

This paper presents a systematic study of scaling laws for the deepfake detection task. Specifically, we analyze the model performance against the number of real image domains, deepfake generation methods, and training images. Since no existing dataset meets the scale requirements for this research, we construct ScaleDF, the largest dataset to date in this field, which contains over 5.8 million real images from 51 different datasets (domains) and more than 8.8 million fake images generated by 102 deepfake methods. Using ScaleDF, we observe power-law scaling similar to that shown in large language models (LLMs). Specifically, the average detection error follows a predictable power-law decay as either the number of real domains or the number of deepfake methods increases. This key observation not only allows us to forecast the number of additional real domains or deepfake methods required to reach a target performance, but also inspires us to counter the evolving deepfake technology in a data-centric manner. Beyond this, we examine the role of pre-training and data augmentations in deepfake detection under scaling, as well as the limitations of scaling itself.The ScaleDF dataset is available at https://huggingface.co/datasets/WenhaoWang/ScaleDF.

cs.CV↗

arXiv2026

Video Encoders Built on Image Representations

The design of a video encoder determines when frames begin to interact and which frame-specific visual evidence remains accessible to the language model. Native video pathways couple neighboring frames during visual encoding, whereas image pathways preserve independently computed frame representations but incur a much larger visual-token cost when all image tokens are forwarded. We ask a basic question: whether a compact video encoder can instead be built on image representations. To answer this question, we separate three operations that are often coupled: per-frame representation, cross-frame token allocation, and temporal interaction. A frozen image encoder first produces frame-specific candidates. A question-aware selector then allocates a fixed token budget across frames using relevance, diversity, and cross-frame correspondence, after which a lightweight learned refiner reads neighboring-frame context and writes residual updates only to the retained anchors. This preserves source positions and keeps the visual output at the fixed budget. Across 13 benchmarks and three vision-language backbones, the resulting pathway matches full-image aggregate performance while using only about 28%-35% of its visual tokens. Specifically, on Qwen3-VL-8B, it achieves a 13-benchmark macro-average of 62.75 with 1,535 visual tokens, compared with 62.58 for the full Image pathway at 4,424 tokens and 59.49 for native Conv3D at 2,212 tokens. On Qwen3-VL-32B, it reaches a 13-benchmark macro-average of 66.28, compared with 66.09 for Image, while providing a 2.16x end-to-end speedup. These results show that compact video encoding does not require early temporal mixing: frame-specific evidence can be preserved first, allocated jointly, and temporally contextualized after selection.

cs.CV↗

arXiv2026

Spectral Tail Auxiliary Learning for AI-Generated Image Detection

As generative image models evolve rapidly, the perceptual gap between generated and real images continues to narrow, making AI-generated image detection increasingly challenging. Many existing methods exploit frequency-domain cues for detection, typically described as frequency-domain artifacts or high-frequency discrepancies. However, the specific and recurring spectral regularities remain insufficiently understood and characterized. In this paper, we systematically analyze the one-dimensional radial log-power spectra of real and generated images. We find that generated images do not necessarily exhibit higher or lower energy across the entire spectrum or high-band range. Instead, their spectra deviate from the power-law decay and show an anomalous uplift in the ultra-high-frequency tail. We term this phenomenon spectral tail uplift. We further attribute this phenomenon to nonlinear harmonic accumulation in trained generative models, suggesting that it can serve as a structural cue across generative architectures. Based on this observation, we propose Spectral Tail Auxiliary Learning (STAL), a frequency-domain auxiliary supervision framework for generalizable AI-generated image detection. STAL transfers spectral-tail cues from a tail-aware frequency teacher to a spatial detector during training, while all frequency-domain modules are discarded at inference time. Consequently, STAL introduces no inference overhead. Extensive experiments on 9 public datasets show that STAL achieves strong generalization and stability across generators, data distributions, and real-world scenarios.

cs.CV↗

arXiv2026

Disentangling Heterogeneous Traffic Dynamics for Multi-Step Traffic Forecasting via Adaptive Spectral Decomposition

Accurate multi-step traffic forecasting remains challenging because observed traffic signals contain heterogeneous temporal dynamics with different characteristics and levels of predictability. Existing approaches typically model these dynamics within a unified representation or rely on predefined decomposition rules, which may limit their ability to flexibly separate persistent patterns from rapidly varying fluctuations. To address this issue, we propose the Adaptive Decomposition Network (ADNet), a component-specific forecasting framework that adaptively disentangles traffic dynamics into dominant and residual components. ADNet introduces a learnable complementary spectral decomposition mechanism that determines the contribution of each frequency bin to the two components. Unlike hard frequency partitioning, every frequency bin can contribute to both components with different learned proportions, allowing the decomposition to be optimized jointly with the forecasting objective. The reconstructed components are then modeled by two dedicated spatiotemporal forecasting branches, and their predictions are integrated to generate the final multi-step forecast. Experiments on the Alameda and Orange regions of the TraffiDent dataset show that ADNet achieves the best performance in 20 of the 24 reported region-horizon-metric comparisons, with particularly clear gains at longer forecasting horizons. Capacity-controlled ablation experiments further show that the learnable decomposition substantially outperforms a fixed decomposition and provides additional improvements beyond the dual-branch architecture alone. These results demonstrate the effectiveness of adaptive decomposition and component-specific modeling for multi-step traffic forecasting.

cs.LG↗

arXiv2026

Regularized Emphatic Temporal-Difference Learning: Stability under Constant Stepsizes

Emphatic temporal-difference learning (ETD) stabilizes the expected off-policy TD update and changes its projection geometry, but neither property determines constant-stepsize sampled dynamics. We construct an ergodic two-state counterexample in which the ETD mean map contracts while the sampled product has a positive top Lyapunov exponent. Regenerative-cycle analysis separates this sign from the infinite variance of the follow-on trace. We introduce regularized emphatic TD (RETD), a normalized first-order post-shock repair that leaves the trace and importance ratios unchanged, stores the emphatic TD signal in a leaky scalar state, and releases a delayed correction. RETD's raw equilibrium is an affine shift of the ETD equilibrium; single- and two-regularization readouts recover the ETD fixed point exactly. We prove almost-sure convergence for harmonic diminishing stepsizes and a conditional constant-stepsize moment-contraction result from a Markovian random-product bound. RETD has certified negative exponents on the two-state construction and one Baird point, whereas the positive Baird ETD sign remains numerical. Paired 10,000-run experiments validate both separations, fixed-point recovery, a nonmonotone stability region, and task dependence. RETD changes post-shock dynamics; it does not reduce the shared follow-on-trace variance.

cs.AI↗

arXiv2026

Maverick: Private and Verifiable LLM Inference Made Practical via Matrix-Vector Multiplication Delegation

Open-source large language models (LLMs) are increasingly competitive with closed-source models while offering transparency and the ability to run inference without exposing user inputs to a service provider. However, running large-scale models locally requires substantial computational resources. In practice, users may still resort to a third-party provider, giving rise to privacy and correctness concerns. Existing solutions that address these problems often impose substantial server overhead or introduce additional trust assumptions. In this paper, we present Maverick, a novel approach to private and verifiable LLM inference based on a protocol for delegating matrix-vector multiplication, a dominant operation in LLMs. At its core, Maverick provides, to our knowledge, the first information-theoretically sound verification protocol for matrix-vector multiplication delegation with transparent preprocessing, efficient (batch) verification, and virtually no server overhead. We combine this verification primitive with LPN-based pseudorandom masking to provide input privacy. We implement our matrix-vector delegation primitive and use it to build an end-to-end prototype of Maverick, which we evaluate on Qwen3-4B by measuring throughput in tokens per second. We evaluate client configurations with 1-8 threads. With one client thread and a CPU server using up to 128 threads, Maverick achieves throughput gains over local inference of up to 17x when privacy masks are generated online, 45x when they are precomputed, and 44x when only verification is required. With four client threads, the corresponding gains are 13x, 18x, and 17x. When server computation is no longer the bottleneck, client-side microbenchmarks with simulated network delay show speedups of 12x-20x, 34x-135x, and 38x-157x.

cs.CR↗

arXiv2026

CUA-Universe: A Scalable and Dynamic Environment for Hybrid GUI+CLI Agents

Computer-use agents have advanced on benchmarks like OSWorld and AndroidWorld, but still act mostly through the GUI, often producing inefficient trajectories. Real-world computer work is hybrid, combining visual-state inspection with precise, high-throughput command-line operations, so capable agents must coordinate both modalities over shared application state. Yet scalable hybrid environments remain scarce because supporting both GUI and CLI over real applications typically requires substantial manual engineering for each application. Existing agents also struggle to use the two interfaces complementarily: CLI-native agents lack visual perception for tasks involving interface state or layout, while GUI-native agents are inefficient for operations better executed through commands. We introduce CUA-Universe, a scalable environment-to-data pipeline that turns real desktop software into hybrid GUI+CLI environments. App-Forge adapts applications into reproducible VMs and command-line surfaces it discovers, wraps, or generates, scaling to 16 applications; Task-Weave synthesizes diverse hybrid tasks of controllable difficulty from reusable operations over seed files; and Path-Steer steers rollouts along efficient hybrid paths and harvests verified trajectories for post-training. Training on this data shifts behavior from inefficient GUI interaction and brittle CLI scripting toward effective GUI+CLI orchestration. Our 9B model improves both success and efficiency on CUA-Verse (Score +39.3 pts; -37% steps, -60% tokens), OSWorld (SR +16.8 pts; -57% steps, -44% tokens), and OSWorld-MCP (Score +7.84 pts; -27% steps, -30% tokens). CUA-Universe provides a scalable path toward more capable and efficient computer-use agents.

cs.AI↗

arXiv2026

NACRE: Rethinking Confidential Containers through Native Architectural Support

Linux containers achieve high density and fast lifecycle operations by sharing the host kernel, but this design also lets a compromised host inspect or modify container state. Existing confidential-computing systems protect an enclave address space or an entire guest operating system, while recent container-granularity systems still add a separate protection context. These abstractions do not make a dynamic group of host-managed Linux processes the architectural protection unit. This paper presents NACRE, a RISC-V hardware-software co-design for native confidential containers. Its key insight is to separate the host's authority to manage resources from its authority to access or commit protected state. Hardware-recognized container identities direct protected traps to an isolated S-mode agent, while an M-mode monitor commits security- sensitive identity, mapping, and page transitions. The agent delegates services to host Linux without changing satp; services that neither access private bytes nor modify protected state also avoid M-mode. We prototype NACRE by extending QEMU, OpenSBI, Linux, a trusted agent, and runc. The prototype implements the single-container private-memory substrate and covered launch, fault, fork/COW, user-access, and teardown paths. Across five lmbench syscall and pipe metrics, the three-run means remain within 3.5% of the runc-origin baseline. With the eight nginx object-size means weighted equally, aggregate throughput is 1.9% lower.

cs.CR↗

arXiv2026

PCBnet: A Dataset and Automatic Construction of SPICE Netlists from Schematic Images

Printed circuit boards (PCBs) are fundamental to modern electronic systems, yet AI-driven PCB design automation remains constrained by the lack of large-scale paired schematic-netlist datasets. PCB schematics are particularly challenging due to diverse component types, complex wiring topologies, and noisy textual annotations. To address this gap, we present PCBnet, a large-scale PCB schematic dataset comprising over 300 real-world designs with annotated pins and paired SPICE netlists. It contains more than 50,000 component instances, 150,000 wires, 100,000 text regions, and 400,000 characters. We further develop an automated schematic-to-netlist pipeline that combines visual recognition, topology construction, and domain-knowledge-guided multi-agent correction. The proposed method achieves 94.54% component detection mAP, 98.57% text recognition accuracy, and 84.47% end-to-end connectivity accuracy. PCBnet provides a benchmark and data foundation for future AI-driven PCB design automation.

cs.CV↗