On the Applicability of the Gas-Kinetic Scheme with Kinetic Boundary Conditions for Near-Continuum Hypersonic Flows

Abstract

Rarefied gas effects are of critical importance for the aerodynamic performance of hypersonic vehicles operating at high altitudes. In these scenarios, conventional computational fluid dynamics (CFD) solvers break down as the linear constitutive relations underlying the Navier-Stokes equations cease to be valid. Based on direct modeling, the unified gas-kinetic scheme (UGKS) and the unified gas-kinetic wave-particle (UGKWP) method successfully capture non-equilibrium physics across all Knudsen numbers, yet they incur substantially higher computational costs than continuum solvers. Within the same kinetic framework, the gas-kinetic scheme (GKS) employs the Chapman-Enskog expansion for near-equilibrium flow physics and adopts the same kinetic boundary conditions as UGKS and UGKWP. This formulation naturally permits velocity slip and temperature jump, thereby extending the applicability of GKS into the slip and transitional regimes. By utilizing this natural kinetic slip boundary condition, the GKS provides a more physically faithful representation of non-equilibrium wall interactions than conventional CFD solvers equipped with Maxwell-type slip conditions, ultimately yielding more accurate aerodynamic predictions. To determine the applicability of the GKS in near-continuum flow regimes, we first examine a simple circular cylinder geometry, comparing surface quantities and distribution functions in detail. Furthermore, we investigate a 9°blunted cone, a 70° blunted cone with a cylindrical sting, and the Apollo 6 command module. This analysis focuses on integrated aerodynamic predictions, which are validated against experimental data, Direct Simulation Monte Carlo (DSMC) simulations, and other kinetic methods.